Chapter 7 - Bowing for All Strings
BOWING FOR ALL STRINGS
Basic Principles
Most Common Bowings
Special Bowings
Bows for string instruments are made of a pliable wooden rod (back) with horsehairs (or gut threads) stretched from the bent head (point or tip) to a movable nut used for tightening. The hair part of the bow is drawn across the strings, thus setting them in vibration.
1. The term "bowing" has a twofold meaning. It refers to the continuous and alternating movement of the bow on the strings as well as to the markings that are used to indicate the direction of the bow. Thus, bow markings determine not only the manner in which the bow will be used but also the style (phrasing) of performance.
2. The degree or strength of tone depends, for the most part, on the amount of bow used, along with its placement and pressure on the strings. The string player divides the bow into three parts: the upper third near the tip, the middle, and the lower part near the frog or nut (heel).
These distinctions may have a practical application and understanding through the working out of the following experiment, (a) Balance a violin bow on the finger by finding its balancing center. Notice that this center is not the exact middle of the bow; the weight of the frog causes the balancing point to be a little toward the lower end. This experiment establishes the frog-end of the bow as its heaviest part. However, when string players place their bow on a string in playing position, they automatically center it. This playing center is used mostly for passages in the middle range of dynamics (piano, mezzo-piano, mezzo-forte), (b) Now, draw the bow over an edged surface. As the bow moves toward the frog (nut), notice that it is possible to exert considerable pressure on it. This lower third of the bow is best suited to the stronger dynamics (forte, fortissimo, etc.). It is ideal for sharp, dry, brittle parts that require strong accents with short bows, (c) Finally, draw the bow in the opposite direction toward the tip and observe that as the upper third of the bow is reached, the amount of pressure decreases to practically zero. This upper third of the bow is usually reserved for all of the softer dynamics with little or no expressive overtones {piano, pianissimo, etc.). From this resume, it is clear that the position of the bow on the string has considerable to do with the degree and variety of tone that will be produced. This simple explanation can be of definite value to non-string players who must struggle with bowings as an integral part of a scoring technique.
3. The amount of bow to be used for a given note, phrase, or passage is important in its relation to the placement of the bow. Naturally, notes of long duration require more bow than those of shorter duration. Yet, even this simple fact needs clarification, since tempos and dynamics must be considered as contributing factors. In this connection, the non-string player should be cognizant of differences in bow sizes used by the instruments of the section. Violoncello and contrabass bows are shorter than those used for the violins and violas and consequently require more frequent bow changes. This prevailing difficulty is particularly troublesome with inexperienced players where bow control is a major factor. The following signs are used as directional bow markings: down-bow ↘; up-bow ↗.
The importance of tempo in bowing may be examined in Fig. 1-14. A long note of this type would be possible in two bows for most tempos up to a moderate andante. In faster tempos, these four measures could be played in one bow, providing the dynamic is no stronger than mezzo-forte. If the same note is written forte or fortissimo, in any of the slow tempos, a bow for each measure would be desirable. In rapid tempos, two bows, as given, would be satisfactory for the louder dynamic levels. In instances where long sustained notes or passages are involved, the orchestrator should be on the alert for entrances of important thematic material so they may start with the proper bowings.
An entirely different problem arises when passage work necessitates the shifting of the bow from one string to another, causing shifted finger positions. Passages in this category are difficult in proportion to the amount of bow shifting required and the size of intervals in the pattern.
Caution. Long, sustained bows are difficult to control, as they require a first-class bow technique to maintain an even tone. Bowings that are combined with frequently shifting finger positions are equally troublesome because they need both bow control and finger dexterity.
4. Phrasing in string music is regulated by bow markings. It is common practice to have most new phrases start with a down-bow, although there are times when an up-bow will automatically mold a melody with a more natural balance and inflection, especially in the softer dynamic levels. Phrases that start with a crescendo and are followed by a diminuendo are in this category. The aim of all bowing is to achieve well-balanced phrases with natural inflections. Figure 1-17 illustrates this point.
Up-bows are idiomatic for all one-bow crescendos which start softly, as this brings the bow toward the frog (Example I- la).
b. Down-bows are normal for diminuendos that may start loudly and move toward a tonal fade-out. This bowing approaches the tip as the tone diminishes (Example I- lb).
5. Almost any arrangement of short bows is technically easier than long bows in any form, although both styles are an integral part of a bowing technique. Short bows have the advantage of being adaptable to all speeds and dynamics whereas long bows are somewhat limited in their dynamic range. It is much less difficult to play a detached phrase with short, alternating bows than to play the same phrase with a single long bow.
6. Long slurs, as used for legato phrasing in piano music, are decidedly impractical if applied as bow markings. These slurs, sometimes extending over many measures, must of necessity be recast with bowings that will approximate the effect and style of the original phrase.
7. If no bow markings are indicated ( down or up ), string players assume that alternate down-up bows are to be used. This is the least difficult of all bowings and is strictly non-legato, with each note receiving a fresh attack with each bow change. The specific kind of attack is dependent upon additional signs such as accents, staccato dots, and the various other symbols used for tonal definition.
8. A more lyric style of legato phrasing has slurs over or under note groupings. Bow direction remains intact for the duration of each slur. The amount of bow used will be determined somewhat by the tempo and dynamic level, as previously explained.
9. Successive, repeated notes of the same pitch occurring in one-bow slurs break the normal flow of a true legato and require bowing adjustments. This technical discrepancy appears rather frequently in piano music where the composer seeks an over-all legato effect. In performance, the non-legato character of repeated-note attacks is minimized by applying the portato technique. Two alternative bowings are available to cope with this technicality. The more obvious of the two calls for a change of bow direction for the repeated note. A second and better choice in most cases is a portato type of bowing that does not change the direction of the bow. Instead, it merely calls for a slight stopping or lifting of the bow for note repetitions of identical pitch.
10. Points for Observation, (a) Successive repeated notes of the same pitch momentarily stop the movement of the bow and may change its direction, (b) A continuous legato should be confined to notes playable on a single string or on adjacent strings, (c) The number of notes in each slur is generally determined by the tempo and dynamic level, (d) Fortissimo passages obviously require more bow than those in the softer dynamic levels. Similarly, soft, fast legatos need less bow than those in the loud, slow category.
SPECIAL BOWINGS
1. Group Staccato. Examples I-4a and I-4b illustrate one of the several types of semi-legato bowings known as group staccato. It is a form of portato indicated by slurs, with dots or dashes (. . .)( — ), as is found in music for all mediums. Dots, used with slurs, indicate lighter bow strokes than those necessary for the dash-slur combination (Loure). Both bowings tend to group into clusters the notes so marked, in a semide- detached style, especially in the faster tempos.
Group staccato bowings, when applied to repeated notes, intervals, or chords are especially useful in controlling the volume of string accompaniments to melodic lines. When so used, four to six notes in one bow is a safe maximum for the softer dynamics in moderate tempos. Three notes in one bow should not be exceeded in the forte-fortissimo levels.
String players have a tendency to "push" up-bows, thereby giving a false pulse and accent. This happens most frequently when a short, quick bow is followed by a longer, slow bow. Distortions of this kind can generally be remedied by using some form of group staccato bowing.
2. Loure is a specialized adaptation of the slur-dash type of bowing, which is generally reserved for melodic phrases or for chord progressions of expressive intensity. It differs in notation from the other styles previously discussed insofar as each note within the slur is marked with a dash. Loure bowing is not practical in faster tempos; its greatest effectiveness is in the medium-to-slow tempos at rather strong dynamic levels. Its true character is lost when subdued below piano.
3. Detaché is a non-legato bowing used for melodic ideas and figurations that are vigorously articulate. The bow remains on the string, and the notation may or may not include dots. Although playable at most tempos, its great emphasis is felt in the medium-fast speeds with relatively few notes.
4. Spiccato bowing, frequently referred to as an "off-the-string" staccato, is limited to passages within a medium loud-to-soft dynamic range. Since the bow is "thrown" at the strings, the resulting tone is light and devoid of any expressive potentials. It is a bowing style demanding considerable control and is therefore somewhat hazardous, except for experienced players. Marking parts with the abbreviation "spicc." will avoid confusion with other staccato bowings.
5. Martelé (Martellato) is a "hammer-stroke" style of bowing possible within a wide range of dynamics. The bow, remaining on the string, produces a dry, brittle staccato indicated by either dots, points, or accents. When used with the softer dynamics, the bow remains near the tip, indicated by "punt a d'arco" or "sul punta del arco." Forte or fortissimo has the bow near the frog with the words "du talon."
6. Jeté, saltando, or saltato employs a "bouncing-bow" technique to give a semi-staccato bowing style restricted to the softer dynamics, piano and pianissimo. Notes are clustered in groups from three to six and are bracketed with a slur and dots, usually with the word "saltando." This form of staccato is ideally suited for moderately fast accompaniments for woodwind melodies (such as Tchaikovsky's Symphony No. 6). In fast tempos, fewer notes can be combined, as shown below.
7. A succession of all down-bows is a means of emphasis for occasional short progressions of chords or thematic ideas. Since the bow is lifted at the heel for each stroke, this bowing is practical only in moderate tempos. It is the strings' most powerful bowing attack.
Additional examples of this bowing style are to be found in the Borodin Symphony No. 2 and the symphony "On a Mountain Air" by Dvořák.
8. The use of successive up-bows carried over several measures is a virtuoso style of bowing and occurs rarely in orchestral music. The illustration given in Example I-12b is the exception rather than the rule.
9. There are two types of string tremolos — measured and unmeasured, along with two styles — bowed and fingered. Both types involve rapid repetitions of notes or intervals. As for styles, the bowed-tremolo repetitions are made by the rapid movement of the bow on the string or strings. With the fingered tremolo, repetitions are made by alternating finger positions on the fingerboard while the bow moves slowly across a single string (as with a trill).
A measured bowed tremolo is not a true tremolo, but rather an abbreviation of exact note repetitions. Note: Tempo is always the important factor in all tremolo notations.
10. The bowed unmeasured tremolo differs from the measured tremolo insofar as the repetitions are not metrically accurate. Confusion between the two types may be avoided for the performer by the use of proper notation and the abbreviation "trem." In medium-to-fast tempos, three flags are satisfactory, with four flags being safer for all slower tempos. All shades of dynamics are possible in both types and styles of tremolos and at all speeds. This type of bowing, greatly overworked during the late 1900s, continues generally to be unused except for programmatic music, ballet, and opera scores. It does have a certain validity in passages of short duration that express agitation or the opposite extreme of restraint, since its dynamic range is enormous. Twentieth-century examples worthy of serious study can be found in the Sibelius Symphony No. 7 and in the Shostakovich Symphony No. 5.
An unmeasured fingered tremolo should be confined to intervals not exceeding a diminished fifth — ones that can be played accurately on one string. The notation for the tremolo requires both notes of the interval to be properly represented according to their metrical division in each measure, the slur lengths indicating the amount of bow to be used. This style of tremolo is decidedly less agitated and powerful than its counterpart and is most effective for sotto voce effects. It was a frequent device with the Liszt-Wagner School of Romantics but has been sparingly used since the turn of the century. At best, all forms of tremolos are limited in scope and should, therefore, be employed only when there is a valid musical justification for their effect.
